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ADUFE

Denomination

The etymology of pandeiro (pandero in Spanish) can be found in the Latin word pandus, which means curved, rounded, so that it's clear that it is the original denomination of a curved typology of drums. Before this, it is even possible that the root pand- was already present in the Greek language and was part of the Indo-European linguistic trunk. But the use of this denomination starts in Spain, surely during the late roman period since, during the imperial age, the rounded instrument was called tympano and the first mention we have of a membraphone instrument using this root (panderete) can be found in the book El libro del buen amor, XIV century. The arabian form bendir and bandayr will derive later on from the spanish denomination.

The reason why the denomination of a rounded instrument passed to a square one, must be searched in the decay of the Arabian cultural characteristics, after the expulsion in 1492. Adufe, which was the medieval denomination of the square and rounded instruments, has a clear Arabic sound and was probably refused by the social context, and the word pandeiro, with a Latin root, was preferred.

In the zones where the rounded and square forms were co-existing, new denominations arose, this is why in Galicia it is not necessary to specify square or rounded: pandeiro means without any doubt a square instrument, pandeira a big rounded one and pandeireta a small rounded one.

We want to remember that it is necessary to take into account the relativity of denominations related to traditional instruments, since in the very rich Galician tradition, there will always be exceptions and nuances.

History

There are sources which give for sure the fact that the pandeiro was played more then 4,000 year ago in some civilizations and cultures in the Mediterranean area, like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and Greece. It is also documented that it was played in Rome, maybe because it was the metropolis of a huge empire which, during a certain period, was including almost all the above cited cultures.

Like we already mentioned in the article about the pandeira, the rounded and square typologies have frequently had the same denomination throughout history, being difficult to get what corresponds to the first one or to the second one in the textual references without a iconography with which they can be compared.

It's usually considered that the pandeiro arrived in Spain with the Arabian invasion with its proper denomination Adufe. With this name it was known during the medieval age in Galicia it is the way it is called now in the Portuguese regions of Guarda and Bajo Alentejo. Adufe comes from the Arabian word duff and, also related to this same root, other denominations exist around the word, like the Arabic daff, the Turkish deff and the Hebrew toph.

The pandeiro in Galicia

Because of its square form the pandeiro is the most characteristic instrument of Galicia. It is played in Galicia, but an EXTENSIVE search through time and space highlights that its use has been magnified, since it has been impossible to find traces of it for example in the large province of A Coruña. Its zone is historically situated in the oriental and southern parts of the territory, which include part of the province of Lugo, Ourense and Pontevedra.

Actually the pandeiro is still in use only in a few places, irregularly distributed in the above mentioned region. This places are in adjacent parts of the provinces of León, Zamora and Portugal, which is very meaningful since they are centers rich of pandeiro tradition, which influence contributed to its preservation in Galicia. The shortage of places and informers make the Galician pandeiro one of the instruments with a high probability to disappear shortly.

The historical iconography of the pandeiro in Galicia is very poor. The most remarkable is the one we find in a tympanum of the San Miguel do Monte chapel, in Chantada (Lugo), of the XII century. It is one of the first representations of the pandeiro in Europe, which makes it especially important. We can surely find a considerable number of representation in the rest of the peninsula but with a higher concentration in the north-west quadrant, which confirms that it has been during the medieval Christian kingdoms when the use to play it took place.

- Quireza

Nowadays one of the Galician localities with a pandeiro tradition is Quireza, main town parish with the same name, in Cerdedo (Pontevedra). One of the players we can find there is Emérita Monteagudo, born in 1917, who started playing pandeiro very young, learning it from the older members of her family, specially from some aunts and grandparents, who actually were pandeiro makers. The typical genres were muiñeira and jota. It is interesting to note that the pandeiro was usually played rounded by pandeiretas, which is quite frequent in the Galician lands.

- O Canizo

Another place where the pandeiro tradition is still alive is A Gudiña, in
Ourense. There in O Canizo, Concha Luís, born in 1920, plays the pandeiro. She learned from her mother, who had been recorded by Lomax in 1950. In those years the pandeiro was already somehow forgotten and actually they had to go looking for a pandeiro because there wasn't one in O Canizo. This makes Concha peculiar, because she is the very last person in that zone who can contribute about the instrument. The typical genres are again muiñeira and jota, besides some others with a more local character, like the one she calls as pombiñas. Concha still has special qualities to inform many different playing styles and she also knows, besides those she plays on the pandeiro, many interesting melodies, that is why she is a very valuable informant.


- Cortellas

The most recognized Galician pandeiro player is Maruja Grande, born in 1930 in the Cortellas district in Soutomaior (Pontevedra), where she still lives. Maruja also started learning at an early age from some wemen living in a house near to her one, from where the pandeiro she is currently playing comes from and which is more or less 100 year old. As usual in all the pandeiro zones, the genres are the muiñeira (ribeirana in Soutomaior), the jota and the agarrados (pasodoble, vals, etc.).

The instrument, like in the rest of the peninsula, consists of a square frame surrounded by a animal skin, sewed on the three open sides. This means that it is actually a unique patch which covers the two sides. An interesting detail are the inner strings which take different denominations (guitarras, guitas) and which vibrate due to the contact with the skin when the drum is played. And of course we have to mention the bells (axóuxeres, arxóuselas; arouxos en Soutomaior) it has inside. We also have to remark the "dress" which covers the seam of the skin and the different bevelling of the edges of the frame, which can vary from crude bavellings to a semi-cylindric profile depending on the zones.


The pandeiro in the Iberian peninsula

In the rest of Spain and Portugal the pandeiro also has a certain presence. There are many places but those we know better are Cangas de Narcea (Asturias), Laciana (León), Peñaparda (Salamanca), Berzocana (Cáceres) and Monsanto (Castelo Branco, Portugal).


- Cangas de Narcea

In Cangas de Narcea there are several towns where we can find pandeiro players. One of them is Trasmonte de Arriba, where Concepción Rodríguez is an amazing specialist. The most remarkable genres are the son d'arriba (sort of jota tipical of that mountainous zone of Asturias), the traditional jota and the agarrados (like almost always the pasodoble and the vals). We have note that the pandeiro is also used to accompany some songs during processions. Concha already recorded two LPs, one alone and the second with some musicians of the zone (both with Tecnosaga, with the intercession of Chema Fraile). The asturian traditionalist musicians tend to say panderu, surelly trying to rescue the denomination of that zone even if Concha says pandeiro.


- Laciana

Laciana, or Chaciana, in the local dialect called pachuezo, is a comarca of León with capital in Villablino. That is where we met the pandeiro player Santiago García, who's family history is strictly related to the pandeiro and who is also a pandeiro maker. The pandeiro of Laciana has a certain affinity with the one of Congas due to the fact they one next to the other and share the same astur-leonés trunk. The affinity can be find in many cultural characteristics, one being the speech and one, of course, music. Among the genres we can find for example the son d'arriba that they use to call jota montañesa. It is interesting to note the ancient tradition of the singers of this zone, to sing songs during the weddings playing the pandeiro, which has affinities with the wedding songs in Ancares (León) and Donís (Lugo). The denomination that traditionalist musicians like Santiago use is panderu, even if around Villabino they use to say pandeiro.


- Peñaparda

Peñaparda is a locality of Salamanca very near to Portugal. Anyway the pandeiro they use to play is not similar to the one played in that land. The way they play it hitting the drum with a stick in one hand and with the fingers of the other hand, which is quite peculiar and surely has a historical derivation. The playing tradition is very important in Peñaparda where we can find many good players and an organization dedicated to it which organises an annual Fiesta del pandeiro cuadrado. The genres they play are those typical of Salamanca, among which we can find the charro, the jota, the fandango and the agechado. In 2002 in Peñaparda they recorded the compilation of pandeiro, gaita and tambor (flute and drum) themes, which has to be added to previous editions of this prestigious tradition. The modern denomination is pandeiro cuadrado (aquare pandeiro) maybe for the exact nature of instrument to be understood abroad, while people of that zone simply say pandeiro.


- Berzocana

In Berzocana (Cáceres) exists a type of pandeiro which will have to gain a better representation in the spanish context. In Berzocana (Cáceres) exists a kind of pandeiro which had to have a more important representation in the context of the Spanish tradition of the pandeiro. It's a pandeiro used in religious ceremonies, identical to the disappeared one of Urgel and La Noguera, which characteristics are a profuse ornamentation, a bigger size then the one usually played for dance and the fact it is used only in precessions. Concretely it is played in the procession which takes place in August to honor the saints San Fulgencio and Santa Florentina, brothers of San Isidoro from Sevilla.
The denomination there, is pandeiro.


- Monsanto

Monsanto (Castelo Branco) is one of the places in Portugal where they play the pandeiro, which is called Adufe, like in te region between Guarda and Bajo Alentejo. The use of the pandeiro in Portugal is shared among dance and religious acts, like in Spain, maybe with just a better balanced distribution, since in almost all the places where it is played, there is a percentage of pieces of both the above uses. Even if the use of the Adufe survives thanks to folkloristic groups (folkloristic ranchos) with some differences but very similar to the Spanish groups, there is a clear affinity to the way it was played formerly and we can find ranchos of different quality. One of the best is surely the group Adufeiras de Monsanto, which is directed by Amelia Fonseca, who learned from her mother. The technique in all the Castelo Blanco province, differs from the Galician one in that the right hand is also used to hold the drum and the thumb finger never looses contact with the frame, but the hand is slightly moved to mark with strokes on the skin, the music's accents.

Playing technique

The playing technique of the pandeiro is very similar to the vello xieto used to play the pandeira. The left hand holds the instrument and the fingers are used to produce soft strokes, while the right hand is the leading one, hitting the center of the drum or the edge.

We include here, just as a resume, three techniques which clearly illustrate the set of different style we can fins in the peninsula. The way each stroke is played is strictly related to the genres, that's why it's usual to find in each genre peculiarities in the hands position, where the drum is struck, etc.


- Soutomaior (Pontevedra), one of the styles to play the jota

The lower corner of the pandeiro is put on the abdomen and the drum is hold with the left hand which hits the skin with all the fingers. The right hand is the leading one hitting in the upper part but marking the accents hitting the center.

- Porto de Sanabria (Zamora), one of the styles to play the muiñeira

The lower part of the pandeiro is put on the chest and it's only hold using the left hand which always maintains the index finger pressing the skin and plays using the three other fingers. The right hand is the leading one marking a quadruplet above and making the typical tátara of the muiñeira down.

- Monsanto, Castelo Branco (Portugal), style of playing all the genres

The pandeiro is mainly hold with the left hand, which index finger constantly presses the skin and playing with the three other fingers. The thumb finger of the right hand helps holding the drum and never leaves the frame. The most frequent strokes are generated hitting the drum very close to the edge, and the accents towards to the center which produces a deeper sound.

- Coros e Danzas

There's a playing style, in which the pandeiro is located on the chest, very common inside and outside Galicia spread by an artificial way. This playing style has no correspondence with the one used by women in the rural tradition. It probably comes from the Galician folkloristic groups (we can denomine Coros y Danzas in Spanish) of the urban tradition in which it looks like the pandeiro has never been played correctly. Emérita use to say "eso non é tocar nin é nada" (that's not playing nor anything else).
Unfortunately in some sources you can read pandeiro de peito to refer to the pandeiro played in Galicia, which highlights not only a poor knowledge of the instrument and its tradition, but also the lack of studies in the field.
 

 

RECORDING PERCUSSION

How do you go about recording an assortment of percussion instruments so that each timbre holds its own?

OVERALL FLAVOR

Before the session starts, determine your approach by considering the needs of the ensemble and its music, the number of mics and channels available, the limitations of the space (or spaces), and time constraints on setup. Does the situation call for a traditional sound, which typically includes a lot of ambience (room sound)? Or would it be better to go for a more controlled studio sound in which everything is isolated and close-miked? The latter approach may be best for a band with more of a pop feel, but how far you are able to go with it depends on the gear, facilities, and time available. The traditional, more blended sound remains a classic and usually makes the most sense if resources are limited.

Assuming the music allows for it, you can also overdub the instruments one at a time — usually the simpler, more economical approach, at least for the small personal studio. But, of course, that method doesn't permit the same level of musical communication that can occur among members of a band performing together. Many of the same recording techniques still apply, though.

BALANCING ACT

Challenges you will face recording a percussion group at once include microphone bleed (sound from one instrument entering another instrument's mic), different sound sources competing for the same frequency ranges, and phase problems resulting from using multiple mics. These variables should influence your choice of microphones, how you position them, and how you deal with the sounds in the mix.

When recording multiple instruments in a single space, mic bleed can be controlled by a combination of two techniques: strategic use of directional mics, and arrangement of physical barriers such as gobos. Generally, the more of one technique you use, the less you need of the other.

One problem with gobos is that they can obscure line of sight between musicians — often a critical element for bands. Here is where careful positioning of unidirectional mics — cardioid, supercardioid, and hypercardioid — can save the day. If possible, take a look at the mics polar-response plot to see where its null points fall . More importantly, listen carefully to familiarize yourself with each mics rejection characteristics. That can further help you determine which mic to assign to which instrument.

Microphone type must also be taken into account. Condenser mics are usually more sensitive and capture more detail, but they also pick up more room sound. Dynamics, on the other hand, typically provide better off-axis rejection, and thus are desirable when you need tighter, more focused sounds. Either type of transducer can usually be made to work, though — what matters more is how you position the mic.

The basic strategy for minimizing bleed using directional mics is to set up each mic so it “hears” primarily one instrument and its rejection zone is “aimed” at any other miked instruments in the same space. Note, too, that, in general, the closer the mic is to the source, the less it will hear the rest of the space. Then again, when using directional mics, bass boosting from the proximity effect must also be taken into account — some instruments can sound boomy, bass heavy, or otherwise unnatural when miked too close. Finally, keep in mind that mic bleed isn't necessarily a bad thing. In fact, it can sometimes contribute positively to a sense of space and thus realism in a recording.

COMPRESSED FOR TIME

Compression is handy for bringing sound sources forward. However, some engineers prefer not to compress while tracking because the effects are irreversible once the tracks are laid down. Others will track with gentle compression to help elements stand out. Essentially creating focus, as you would with a camera, that can be especially helpful for featured instruments such as congas and timbales.

Starting with a ratio of 2:1 or 3:1 and setting attack time at roughly 30 milliseconds and release time at 200 milliseconds. Work a bit with the settings until you get approximately 3 dB of compression. But don't set the attack too fast — on percussion instruments, the leading-edge transient needs to get through or else the sound won't be natural. To increase sustain and resonance of, say, a conga, try lengthening the release time to somewhere between 200 milliseconds and 1 second and then adjusting the makeup gain until you get the desired result. For ancillary percussion — shakers and the like — you can usually get away with simply setting a good level to tape and foregoing compression.

PRIORITIES STRAIGHT

When recording a Latin-percussion ensemble, the priorities are usually timbales and congas. Be sure to get as clean a track as possible for these lead instruments, either by providing some isolation with gobos or by putting the players in separate rooms.

If you're recording the whole group in the same room, use directional mics as previously described, letting room dynamics and proximity of other musicians determine optimal setup. On the other hand, if you're overdubbing one instrument at a time, try changing the distance between mic(s) and source for each track. That technique can add a nice sense of spatial dimension when the tracks are mixed together. Another way to enhance the realism of separately overdubbed tracks is to use a distant or ambient mic in addition to the closer mic(s) trained on the instrument(s).

TIMBALES

Typically a set of timbales consists of two single-headed drums, a woodblock, and two cowbells (one “mambo” and one “cha-cha”) mounted between the drums, and a cymbal off to the side. The overall sound is bright, loud, and very cutting.

Timbales can be miked effectively a number of ways. Some engineers like to go for a tightly focused sound by close-miking the drums with dynamics and positioning an overhead condenser or two to pick up the bell/block cluster and the cymbal. Mics are placed three or four inches from each drum and angled toward the head and position a small-diaphragm condenser six inches to a foot above the bell/block cluster. That mic will often pick up the cymbal just fine; if it doesn't, position a second small-diaphragm condenser to pick up the cymbal. Using a highpass filter to roll off the low end on the condenser mic(s) so the low-midrange frequency content from the drums won't be in phase competition with the bells, block, and cymbal.

Stereo-miking can yield excellent results on timbales, too, especially if the timbales are well isolated from the other instruments or are being overdubbed individually. Using a stereo mic or a near-coincident or coincident pair of condensers positioned overhead. Place the mic pair about 18 inches to two feet above the bell/block cluster. If the mics are positioned too close to the drums, you'll pick up too much cowbell sound, so work with the distance until the levels of the bells and drums are in balance.

This approach gives you a full, honest, phase-accurate picture of the instrument along with some natural room sound, the beauty of it is that you don't have to handcraft the overall sound of the instrument later — which is what you end up having to do if you mic each element separately.

Another effective way to record timbales in stereo is with a spaced pair of condensers. Place the mics at overhead height, about two feet in front and three feet apart as a starting point, and play with the positioning and pickup patterns to get the best sound. A cardioid pattern will give you a tighter sound, whereas an omni or figure-8 will capture more room reflections and diffusion, resulting in a more live sound.  You can also get great results with large-diaphragm condensers.

Of course, timbales don't have to be stereo-miked — you can also get great results from a single well-positioned microphone. Given that musical styles featuring timbales (salsa, son, timba, and others) often involve a dozen or more instruments, making for rather busy mixes, you may find that a mono image will suffice. Position a quality large-diaphragm condenser, in front and above, pointing down at the timbales. Cardioid is the appropriate pattern if you need rear rejection, but if not, be sure to audition the figure-8 and omni patterns as well — the additional room sound can be enticing. For a different, somewhat more vintage sound, try a ribbon mic.

CONGAS

Congas are single-headed hand drums commonly played in sets of two or three. Directional dynamic mics are commonly used for their superior off-axis rejection but are favored also for their tonal characteristics. Position the mic three to four inches from the head, angled toward the center of the skin so as to pick up both the drum's fundamental tone and hand and finger articulations.

If the conguero (the conga player) is using four or five drums and there's sufficient isolation, mini clip-on condensers  can reduce mic-stand clutter and provide a crisp, detailed sound. The challenge when miking a multi conga setup is getting all the tones to speak evenly, If you're getting too much bleed from adjacent drums, you may need to use some EQ to tone down the fundamental tone of an off-axis drum.

If bleed isn't a problem, small-diaphragm cardioid condensers are excellent choices for miking congas. For an even more natural sound — one without boosted lows from the proximity effect — use a small-diaphragm omni.

To increase low-end punch and resonance, position a floor mic beneath the drum (in addition to the close mic on the head). If the conguero is seated and has the drums resting on the floor and tilted back (a standard position), place a large-diaphragm condenser six inches to a foot away and aimed toward the section of floor beneath the drum. This will catch the lows from the drum cavity reflecting off the floor.

If the congas are stand mounted, try placing a dynamic mic three or four inches beneath the drum, aimed up inside the cavity. Reverse the polarity on this bottom mic and audition the combined sound — it will likely be better, as the two mics on the drum are aimed more or less toward one another. To increase low-frequency sustain, add some gentle compression on the low mic.

BONGOS

The bongos consist of two small hand drums, the embra (large) and macho (small). The pair is typically played either suspended between the knees or supported on a stand. Often, a single mic, either a dynamic or a small-diaphragm condenser, is sufficient to capture both drums. Place the mic about four or so inches above and between the drums, positioned to capture a balance of the macho and the embra. There's a certain amount of depth on the embra side that you want to make sure to capture, Balance that strong fundamental with the slap on the macho side, making sure that the slap has a good tone also.

If you're doing an overdub session and want a brighter, more sparkly bongo sound, record in a live-sounding room to take advantage of room reflections. To increase ambience, he recommends using a large-diaphragm condenser positioned about six inches back from the heads.

SHEKERE

Despite its simple appearance, the shekere — essentially a hollow gourd enveloped in a beaded net — is a sonically complex instrument. A deep tone emanates from the mouth of the gourd, the net rattles against the sides of the instrument, and the player's fingers tap the base of the gourd, making for three ranges of timbres.

To capture a blend of these sounds with a single mic, using a condenser — large- or small-diaphragm — positioned at about shoulder height and a foot or so in front of the player. However, if the shekere is to be prominently featured in the mix, you may desire more individual control of the low and high sounds. Use two mics in that case: a large-diaphragm condenser on one end, positioned to capture the low note from the gourd's mouth, and a small-diaphragm condenser on the other end, aimed to pick up the finger taps and bead slaps. Be sure to experiment with reversing the polarity on one of the mics so you can determine what arrangement yields the best sound.

PERCUSSION TABLE

Other sounds found in Latin-music ensembles include guiro, maracas, cabasa, shakers, and triangle. If the percussionist is playing these instruments in a room with other musicians, mic with a small-diaphragm condenser, because those are more focused than large-diaphragm condensers. In general, position the mic a foot or so away from the player to allow for a fairly broad pickup zone — you don't want to limit the percussionist's range of movement.

With overdubs for maracas, cabasa, guiro, or shaker, avoid miking the instrument too closely — some air around the sound is usually a good thing.